[101], Departing the Vitascope operation after little more than a yearin which the Edison Company's film-related business made a $25,000 profitEdison commissioned the development of his own projection systems, the Projectoscope and then multiple iterations of the Projecting Kinetoscope, eventually targeting semiprofessional and amateur customers. Robinson (1997) states that "Edison and Dickson were almost certainly in the audience" on February 25 (p. 23); Rossell (2022) is even more definitive: "Thomas Edison attended the Saturday evening lecture with his wife Minna" (p. 26). [95] Another challenge came from a new "peep show" device, the cheap, flip-book-based Mutoscopeanother venture to which Dickson had secretly contributed while working for Edison and to which he devoted himself following the Eidoloscope debut. Along with Spehr, who has made the closest study of the development of the Kinetoscope film gauge, the historical consensus is that it was 35 mm. In fact, it was a Kinetoscope exhibition in Paris that inspired the Lumire brothers, Auguste and Louis, to invent the first commercially viable projector. The machines were modified so that they did not operate by nickel slot. While Edison seems to have conceived the idea and initiated the experiments, Dickson apparently performed the bulk of the experimentation, leading most modern scholars to assign Dickson with the major credit for turning the concept into a practical reality. At first, Edison regarded his invention as an insignificant toy. Edison called the invention a "Kinetoscope," using the Greek words "kineto" meaning "movement" and "scopos" meaning "to watch.". 1114. Behind the peephole was a spinning wheel with a narrow slit that acted as a shutter, permitting a momentary view of each of the 46 frames passing in front of the shutter every second. This essay relies heavily on the research and writings of film historians Charles Musser, David Robinson, and Eileen Bowser. Edison (1891b), diagrams 1, 2 [pp. In fact, it was a Kinetoscope exhibition in Paris that inspired the Lumire brothers, Auguste and Louis, to invent the first commercially viable projector. Hendricks (1966), p. 15. "Apparatus for Exhibiting Photographs of Moving Objects" in Mannoni et al., Gomery, Douglas (1985). The rights to the system had been acquired by Raff and Gammon, who redubbed it the Vitascope and arranged with Edison to present himself as its creator. 8), but no other source confirms this. Musser (1994), pp. Hendricks (1961) gives August 3 (p. 48). 13334; Salt (1992), p. 32. Birth of a Nation. In this pursuit, and to make films for both the original device and its knockoffs, Paul and photographer Birt Acresbriefly Paul's business partnerwould originate a number of important innovations in both camera and exhibition technology. Two leading scholars, however, are not part of this consensus. This essay relies heavily on the research and writings of film historians Charles Musser, David Robinson, and Eileen Bowser. Though not a movie projectorit was designed for films to be viewed individually through the window of a cabinet housing its componentsthe Kinetoscope introduced the basic approach that would become the standard for all cinematic projection before the advent of video: it creates the illusion of movement by conveying a strip of . We use cookies to ensure that we give you the best experience on our website. The syndicate of Maguire and Baucus acquired the foreign rights to the Kinetoscope in 1894 and began to market the machines. It was given its first commercial demonstration on December 28, 1895. [40] Despite extensive promotion, a major display of the Kinetoscope, involving as many as twenty-five machines, never took place at the Chicago exposition. The Edison laboratory, though, worked as a collaborative organization. (1907). People's daily activities were no longer dependent on daylight, a significant impact. Hendricks (1966), pp. He photographs the face at the same time one talks into the phonograph. At the rate of 30 fps that had been used as far back as 1891, a film could run for almost 27 seconds. Spehr (2000), pp. [50] The ten films that comprise the first commercial movie program, all shot at the Black Maria and each running about 15 to 20 seconds, were descriptively titled: Barber Shop, Bertoldi (mouth support) (Ena Bertoldi, a British vaudeville contortionist), Bertoldi (table contortion), Blacksmiths, Roosters (some manner of cock fight), Highland Dance, Horse Shoeing, Sandow (Eugen Sandow, a German strongman managed by Florenz Ziegfeld), Trapeze, and Wrestling. [32], As for the Kinetoscope itself, there have been differing descriptions of the location of the shutter providing the crucial intermittent visibility effect. Two days later, Muybridge and Edison met at the Edison lab in West Orange and discussed the possibility of joining the zoopraxiscope with the Edison phonographa combination system that would play sound and images concurrently. Starting in 1894, Kinetoscopes were marketed commercially through the firm of Raff and Gammon for $250 to $300 apiece. If you continue to use this site we will assume that you are happy with it. Robinson (1997), p. 51; Gomery (1985), p. 54; Altman (2004), pp. [103] In 1912, Edison introduced the ambitious Home Projecting Kinetoscope, which employed a unique format of three parallel columns of sequential frames on one strip of filmthe middle column ran through the machine in the reverse direction from its neighbors. "Introducing Cinema to the American Public: The Vitascope in the United States, 18967," in. In the United States the Kinetoscope installation business had reached the saturation point by the summer of 1895, although it was still quite profitable for Edison as a supplier of films. Burns (1998) says the Kinetoscope "was on exhibition in August in the Boulevard Poissoniere" (p. 73)aside from the misspelling, this is evidently erroneous. Another important early British filmmaker was Cecil Hepworth, whose Rescued by Rover (1905) is regarded by many historians as the most skillfully edited narrative produced before the Biograph shorts of D.W. Griffith. Updates? The invention of a camera in the Edison laboratories capable of recording successive images in a single camera was a more practical, cost-effective breakthrough that influenced all subsequent motion picture devices. Baldwin (2001), pp. The viewer listened through tubes to a phonograph concealed in the cabinet and performing approximately appropriate music or other sound." Dickson was not the only person who had been tackling the problem of recording and reproducing moving images. 1902 Air Conditioning Musser (1994) dates the opening to October 17 (p. 82). [49] The four-foot-tall machines were purchased from the new Kinetoscope Company, which had contracted with Edison for their production; the firm, headed by Norman C. Raff and Frank R. Gammon, included among its investors Andrew M. Holland, one of the entrepreneurial siblings, and Edison's former business chief, Alfred O. "Edison's Kinematograph Experiments," in. [64], Just three months after the commercial debut of the motion picture came the first recorded instance of motion picture censorship. Ramsaye (1986) reports that Rector was central to the modification process (ch. Edison got the idea of using a battery to provide current on the phone line and to control its strength by using carbon to vary the resistance. In 1915, director D. W. Griffith established his reputation with the highly successful film The Birth of a Nation, based on Thomas Dixon's novel The Clansman, a prosegregation narrative about the American South during and after the Civil War.At the time, The Birth of a Nation was the longest feature film ever made, at almost 3 hours, and contained huge battle scenes that . How Did Jim Brown Impact Society. [73] At the end of November, by which point New York City was host to half a dozen Kinetophone parlors and London to nearly as many, a venue with five machines opened in Sydney, Australia. [42] Robinson, in contrast, argues that such "speculation" is "conclusively dismissed by an 1894 leaflet issued for the launching of the invention in London," which states, "the Kinetoscope was not perfected in time for the great Fair. In. [47] With commercial exploitation close at hand, on April 1, the motion picture operation was formally made the Kinetograph Department of the Edison Manufacturing Company, for which Edison appointed a new vice president and general manager: William E. In an attempt to protect his future inventions, Edison filed a caveat with the Patents Office on October 17, 1888, describing his ideas for a device which would "do for the eye what the phonograph does for the ear" -- record and reproduce objects in motion. Though the fair opened May 1, the Electricity Buildinglocation of the Edison exhibit and the possible Kinetoscopedid not formally open until a month later (p. 44), so there is no argument that the Brooklyn presentation came first. How did Thomas Edison invention impact the industrial revolution? Cinema in the 1920s. 19194; Schwartz (1999), p. 183. Hendricks describes him as taking a "ten weeks' rest" (p. 28) or spending "about ten and a half weeks in the south" (p. 33), a plausible interpretation given travel time from New Jersey to Florida, where Dickson headed. [96] At that point, North American orders for new Kinetoscopes had all but evaporated. [19] By early 1891, however, Dickson and his new chief assistant, William Heise, had succeeded in devising a functional strip-based film viewing system. "At the Beginning: Motion Picture Production, Representation and Ideology at the Edison and Lumire Companies," in Grieveson and Krmer, Spehr, Paul C. (2000). "I aimed at the public's heart, and by accident I hit it in the stomach." So lamented Upton Sinclair, author of the novel The Jungle, a fictionalized account of the corruption and contamination in Chicago's meatpacking industry.Sinclair was one of the most famous muckrakers of the Progressive Era, and had written The Jungle in 1905 to raise public awareness of the exploitation and foul . (2004). When Norman Raff communicated his customers' interest in such a system to Edison, he summarily rejected the notion: No, if we make this screen machine that you are asking for, it will spoil everything. Gilmore. [109] It met with early acclaim, but poorly trained operators had trouble keeping picture in synchronization with sound and, like other sound-film systems of the era, the Kinetophone had not solved the issues of insufficient amplification and unpleasant audio quality. The duration of a. Hendricks (1966), pp. Four good reasons to indulge in cryptocurrency! It was a most marvelous picture. How did the Trail of Tears impact American society? A half-dozen expanded Kinetoscope machines each showed a different round of the fight for a dime, meaning 60 cents to see the complete bout. If the earlier date is correct, it is likely Fred Ott; if the latter, G. Sacco Albanese. The film industry is arguably one of the most impactful sectors in modern society. [98] The Vitascope premiered in New York in April and met with swift success, but was just as quickly surpassed by the Cinmatographe of the Lumires, which arrived in June with the backing of Benjamin F. Keith and his circuit of vaudeville theaters. [104] Three years later, the Edison operation came out with its last substantial new film exhibition technology, a short-lived theatrical system called the Super Kinetoscope. Around June 1889, the lab began working with sensitized celluloid sheets, supplied by John Carbutt, that could be wrapped around the cylinder, providing a far superior base for the recording of photographs. For the profits from April 1, 1894, through February 28, 1895, see Musser (1994), who gives the total as $85,337.83 (p. 84). Is the Kinetoscope the same as the kinescope? . 99100; Spehr (2000), pp. cit., agrees), (c) sheets from another supplier, Allen & Rowell, arrived on the same date, and (d) sheets from yet another source had been received in May. The Kinetophone (aka Phonokinetoscope) was an early attempt by Edison and Dickson to create a sound-film system. Edison's contributions. The Kinetoscope is an early motion picture exhibition device. Its crucial innovation was to take advantage of the persistence of vision theory by using an intermittent light source to momentarily "freeze" the projection of each image; the goal was to facilitate the viewer's retention of many minutely different stages of a photographed activity, thus producing a highly effective illusion of constant motion. However, he lists both Fred Ott's Sneeze and Carmencita at 40 fps (he does not discuss "Athlete with wand") (p. 7). A large, electrically driven sprocket wheel at the top of the box engaged corresponding sprocket holes punched in the edges of the film, which was thus drawn under the lens at a continuous rate. "Almost identical" perhaps, but not practically so: 35 mm and 38 mm (1 1/2 inch) film are not compatible. It was a commercial failure. Thomas Edison's Contributions What a great inventor he was!! 109, 11133, 13539; Rossell (2022), pp. For an extended excerpt from the article, see Hendricks (1966), pp. 8183. 342, 343 in. The Trail of Tears has become the symbol in American history that signifies the callousness of American policy makers toward American Indians. It bowed and smiled and waved its hands and took off its hat with the most perfect naturalness and grace. Musser (1991), p. 44. For Dickson's departure, see also Rossell (2022), p. 62; Musser (1991), pp. Stross (2007), pp. [27] The Kinetoscope application also included a plan for a stereoscopic film projection system that was apparently abandoned. The purpose of this title is to ensure that all children have a fair, equal, and significant opportunity to obtain a high-quality education and reach, at a minimum, proficiency on challenging State academic achievement standards and state academic assessments. Grieveson and Krmer (2004), p. 34; Cross and Walton (2005), p. 39. The following list commemorates 10 of the greatest scientists we've ever seen who changed the world. [110], Advertisement for Kinetoscope exhibition in Elmira, New York, September 1894, Promotion of Kinetophone system, January 1913, Reverse side of a Kinetophone, showing a wax cylinder phonograph driven by a belt, Edison kinetoscopic record of a sneeze (aka Fred Ott's Sneeze): filmed c. Jan. 27, 1894; 5 seconds at 16 fps Tiny photographic images were affixed in sequence to a cylinder, with the idea that when the cylinder was rotated the illusion of motion would be reproduced via reflected light. David Robinson writes: It consisted of an upright wooden cabinet, 18 in. [14], The question of when the Edison lab began working on a filmstrip device is a matter of historical debate. A Kinetoscope prototype was first semipublicly demonstrated to members of the National Federation of Women's Clubs invited to the Edison laboratory on May 20, 1891. Rossell (2022), p. 47; Lipton (2021), pp. (From Peep Show to Palace, p. 34). 31, 33. 3435, 4950. Several of them, notably Edwin S. Porter, were, in fact, hired as directors by production companies after the industry stabilized in the first decade of the 20th century. Although apparently intrigued, Edison decided not to participate in such a partnership, perhaps realizing that the Zoopraxiscope was not a very practical or efficient way of recording motion. [2] In March 1889, a second caveat was filed, in which the proposed motion picture device was given a name, Kinetoscope, derived from the Greek roots kineto- ("movement") and scopos ("to view").[3]. [59], On June 15, a match with abbreviated rounds was staged between boxers Michael Leonard and Jack Cushing at the Black Maria. Unlike the Kinetograph, which was battery-driven and weighed more than 1,000 pounds (453 kg), the cinmatographe was hand-cranked, lightweight (less than 20 pounds [9 kg]), and relatively portable. [56], One of the new firms to enter the field was the Kinetoscope Exhibition Company; the firm's partners, brothers Otway and Grey Latham, Otway's friend Enoch Rector, and their employer, Samuel J. Tilden Jr., sought to combine the popularity of the Kinetoscope with that of prizefighting. 1, it shows an employee of the lab in an apparently tongue-in-cheek display of physical dexterity. Georges Mlis; A Trip to the Moon. Witness the recording of Fred Ott sneezing captured by Kinetoscopic, 1894, This article was most recently revised and updated by, https://www.britannica.com/technology/Kinetoscope. However, it turned out to be an immediate success. Three more orders for roll film were placed over the next five months. "[77] Given that Edison, as much a businessman as an inventor, spent approximately $24,000 on the system's development and went so far as to build a facility expressly for moviemaking before his U.S. patent was awarded, Rausch's interpretation is not widely shared by present-day scholars. The Edison Company established its own Kinetograph studio (a single-room building called the Black Maria that rotated on tracks to follow the sun) in West Orange, New Jersey, to supply films for the Kinetoscopes that Raff and Gammon were installing in penny arcades, hotel lobbies, amusement parks, and other such semipublic places. "Unaltered to Date: Developing 35 mm Film," in, This page was last edited on 28 November 2022, at 23:53. Quoted in Hendricks (1966), p. 14. Encyclopaedia Britannica's editors oversee subject areas in which they have extensive knowledge, whether from years of experience gained by working on that content or via study for an advanced degree. Magic lanterns used glass slides with images which were projected. Instrumental to the birth of American movie culture, the Kinetoscope also had a major impact in Europe; its influence abroad was magnified by Edison's decision not to seek international patents on the device, facilitating numerous imitations of and improvements on the technology. 4447. "Motion Pictures," in. 23, diagram 4 [pp. In the new design, whose mechanics were housed in a wooden cabinet, a loop of horizontally configured 3/4inch (19mm) film ran around a series of spindles. Financial analysis based on Musser (1994), p. 81. This led to the Kinetophone" (p. 78). A rapidly moving shutter gave intermittent exposures when the apparatus was used as a camera, and intermittent glimpses of the positive print when it was used as a viewer--when the spectator looked through the same aperture that housed the camera lens.". Ramsaye (1986), ch. [58] Even at the slowest of these rates, the running time would not have been enough to accommodate a satisfactory exchange of fisticuffs; 16 fps, as well, might have been thought to give too herky-jerky a visual effect for enjoyment of the sport. See also Cinmatographe. [92] The Latham brothers and their father, Woodville, had been developing a film projection system, retaining the services of former Edison employee Eugene Lauste and benefiting secretly from Dickson's assistance while he was still in Edison's employ. While Braun (1992) states that "the Cinmatographe LeRoy made its public appearance on 11 April 1895 in New York" (p. 260), Rossell (2022) summarizes the case against LeRoy's "great deception" (p. 50). Numerous motion picture systems developed by Edison's firm in later years were marketed with the name Projecting Kinetoscope. During this time, which has been characterized as the novelty period, emphasis fell on the projection device itself, and films achieved their main popularity as self-contained vaudeville attractions. Let's not kill the goose that lays the golden egg.[87]. As noted, Hendricks (1966) gives the same speed for Sandow. For the height, see. Musser (1994), p. 178; Altman (2004), pp. Film's profound impact on its earliest viewers is difficult to imagine today, inundated as many are by video images. Thomas Edison Patented the Kinetoscope August 31, 1897 When his assistant W.K.L. This naturally affected the kinds of films that were made with each machine: Edison films initially featured material such as circus or vaudeville acts that could be taken into a small studio to perform before an inert camera, while early Lumire films were mainly documentary views, or actualities, shot outdoors on location. 140, 14951, 166, 210; Hendricks (1961), pp. The premiere of the completed Kinetoscope was held not at the Chicago World's Fair, as originally scheduled, but at the Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences on May 9, 1893. Lipton (2021) puts the profits at "about $89,000" (p. 132). [13] This disc-based projection device, also known as the Schnellseher ("quick viewer"), is often referred to as an important conceptual source for the development of the Kinetoscope. In Ramsaye's (1986) account, "Throngs packed the [Latham kinetoscope parlor], and by the second day long lines of waiting patrons trailed back into the street. Carmencita: filmed c. Mar. In it, a strip of film was passed rapidly between a lens and an electric light bulb while the viewer peered through a peephole. [12] At the Exposition Universelle, Edison would have seen both the Thtre Optique and the electrical tachyscope of German inventor Ottamar Anschtz. Magic lanterns and other devices had been employed in popular entertainment for generations. How Did George Washington Impact Society. See also Hendricks (1966), pp. [91] In its second year of commercialization, the Kinetoscope operation's profits plummeted by more than 95 percent, to just over $4,000. An encounter with the work and ideas of photographic pioneer Eadweard Muybridge appears to have spurred Thomas Edison to pursue the development of a motion picture system. Baldwin describes the meeting as taking place in mid-September (p. 209); Burns (1998) says it was August (p. 73). Robinson (1997), p. 29; Spehr (2000), pp. The Nation, however, didn't take note of the new technology until 1913, in the following. "[68] The group whose disgruntlement occasioned the arrest was the Pacific Society for the Suppression of Vice, whose targets included "illicit literature, obscene pictures and books, the sale of morphine, cocaine, opium, tobacco and liquors to minors, lottery tickets, etc.," and which proudly took credit for having "caused 70 arrests and obtained 48 convictions" in a recent two-month span. According to Dickson, in mid-1889, he began cutting the stiff celluloid sheets supplied by Carbutt into strips for use in such a prototype machine; in August, by his description, he attended a demonstration of George Eastman's new flexible film and was given a roll by an Eastman representative, which was immediately applied to experiments with the prototype. [20] The device incorporated a rapidly spinning shutter whose purposeas described by Robinson in his discussion of the completed versionwas to "permi[t] a flash of light so brief that [each] frame appeared to be frozen. Almost everyone can name the man that invented the light bulb. For a quarter, Americans could escape from their problems and lose themselves in another era or world. 2326; Braun (1992), pp. Dissemination of the system proceeded rapidly in Europe, as Edison had left his patents unprotected overseas. Muybridge proposed that they collaborate and combine the Zoopraxiscope with the Edison phonograph. The police came to keep order" (ch. What is a Kinetoscope and what does it do? By late 1890, intermittent visibility would be integral to the Kinetoscope's design. 5961, 6468, 71, 73, 7576, 7881; Christie (2019), pp. The town's founder, James A. Bradley, a real estate developer and leading member of the Methodist community, had recently been elected a state senator:[66] "The Newark Evening News of 17 July 1894 reported that [Senator] Bradleywas so shocked by the glimpse of Carmencita's ankles and lace that he complained to Mayor Ten Broeck. What is the role of film in society? After fulfilling the GeorgiadesTragides contract, Paul decided to go into the movie business himself, proceeding to make dozens of additional Kinetoscope reproductions. For extensive lists of North American locales with Kinetoscope exhibits in 1894 and 1895, see Rossell (2022), p. 56; Hendricks (1966), pp. [8], The project would soon head off in more productive directions, largely impelled by a trip of Edison's to Europe and the Exposition Universelle in Paris, for which he departed August 2 or 3, 1889. Hendricks (1961), pp. The camera was based on. The Kinetoscope was not a movie projector, but it introduced the basic approach that would become the standard for all cinematic projection before the advent of video: it created the illusion of movement by conveying a strip of perforated film bearing sequential images over a light source with a high-speed shutter. Hendricks (1966), pp. 9194; Rossell (2022), pp. They write new content and verify and edit content received from contributors. Under continuing pressure from Raff, Edison eventually conceded to investigate the possibility of developing a projection system. [29] Before the end of the year, the design of the Kinetoscope was essentially complete. In any event, though film historian David Robinson claims that "the cylinder experiments seem to have been carried on to the bitter end" (meaning the final months of 1890), as far back as September 1889while Edison was still in Europe, but corresponding regularly with Dicksonthe lab definitely placed its first order with the Eastman company for roll film. [63] In sum, seventy-five films were shot at the Edison facility in 1894. In it, a strip of film was passed rapidly between a lens and an electric light bulb while the viewer peered through a peephole. There is also a question about which Edison employee appears in the film. He seconded one of his lab's technicians to the Kinetoscope Company to initiate the work, without informing Dickson. Hendricks (1961), pp. First described in conceptual terms by U.S. inventor Thomas Edison in 1888, it was largely developed by his employee William Kennedy Laurie Dickson between 1889 and 1892. Robinson (1997) gives August 2 (p. 27). Motion pictures became a successful entertainment industry in less than a decade . Recognizing the importance of the kinetoscope to technology and society, Edison made it available to the public free of charge. We are making these peep show machines and selling a lot of them at a good profit. As historian David Robinson describes, "The Kinetophonemade no attempt at synchronization. [21] The CaslerHendricks description is supported by the diagrams of the Kinetoscope that accompany the 1891 patent application, in particular, diagram 2. This led to a series of significant developments in the motion picture field: The Kinetograph was then capable of shooting only a 50-foot-long negative. By 1890, Dickson was joined by a new assistant, William Heise, and the two began to develop a machine that exposed a strip of film in a horizontal-feed mechanism. A patent for the Kinetograph (the camera) and the Kinetoscope (the viewer) was filed on August 24, 1891. 9899). Charles A. Vaudeville houses, locked in intense competition at the turn of the century, headlined the name of the machines rather than the films (e.g., The VitascopeEdisons Latest Marvel, The Amazing Cinmatographe). TRUE. During the novelty period, the film industry was autonomous and unitary, with production companies leasing a complete film service of projector, operator, and shorts to the vaudeville market as a single, self-contained act. [62] For a planned series of follow-up fights (of which the outcome of at least the first was fixed), the Lathams signed famous heavyweight James J. Corbett, stipulating that his image could not be recorded by any other Kinetoscope companythe first movie star contract. . [6] The first film made for the Kinetoscope, and apparently the first motion picture ever produced on photographic film in the United States, may have been shot at this time (there is an unresolved debate over whether it was made in June 1889 or November 1890); known as Monkeyshines, No. 8990. Robinson (1997) says the lab ordered the Carbutt sheets on June 25, 1889, and that they were "marketed in 20" x 50"" size. For more on the Hollands, see Peter Morris, Musser (1994), p. 81. 19394. Edison assigned Dickson, one of his most talented employees, to the job of making the Kinetoscope a reality. [7] Attempts at synchronizing sound were soon left behind, while Dickson would also experiment with disc-based exhibition designs. Who are the owners of the Kinetoscope Company? In Europe Edison had met French physiologist tienne-Jules Marey who used a continuous roll of film in his Chronophotographe to produce a sequence of still images, but the lack of film rolls of sufficient length and durability for use in a motion picture device delayed the inventive process. [71] The first European Kinetoscope parlor was soon operating in Paris, at 20 boulevard Poissonnire. Since motion pictures were invented, audiences have loved how they tell stories. 57, 5960, 6466, 68, 7172. After fifty weeks in operation, the Hollands' New York parlor had generated approximately $1,400 in monthly receipts against an estimated $515 in monthly operating costs; receipts from the Chicago venue (located in a Masonic temple) were substantially lower, about $700 a month, though presumably operating costs were lower as well.
Prestolite Hyc5005 Manual,
Rancho Imperial San Bernardino,
Francis Schmidt Obituary,
Articles H